Ethics From the Long View
By William M. Tillman, Jr.
A Review of Cecil John Cadoux`s The Early Church and The World, Ernst Troeltsch`s The Social Teachings of the Christian Churches, and Reinhold Niebuhr`s Moral Man and Immoral Society.
Remember!" Contrary to some readers` thought this was not said first by Mr. Spock of Star Trek fame. Rather, "remember" is one of the key words in the Old Testament. Though we do not typically think of it as such, memory is an ethical category. More than merely a platonic abstraction or a passive sense of holding things in reserve, memory should take on an extraordinarily active role in our lives.
We are assaulted day-by-day by those who would impose on us an ethical amnesia. With oversimplification and reductionism abounding, we are constrained and extruded toward an age of trivialization of perspective. Without the long view we can lose sight of those concerns of ultimacy.
The editor of this journal has rightly intended to alert the readership to sources which deal with the big picture of Christian ethics. In no way does this say that specific issues are unimportant; rather, there is a legitimate need to periodically address what I call macro-ethics.
The books under review here have, by dealing with macro-ethics, become a part of the long view or big picture of Christian ethics. They have exhibited staying power. Only Cadoux`s book is out of print. Though originally published in 1925 it was reprinted in 1955, an interesting phenomenon in the world of short shelf life. Copies are still out there for the alert collector.
At the time of the writing of The Early Church and The World, with its hefty subtitle of A History of the Christian Attitude to Pagan Society and the State Down to the Time of Constantinus, Cadoux bore an interesting title himself. He was professor of New Testament criticism, exegesis, and theology, and of Christian sociology. Though more than a wide spot in the road we might still consider his location, Yorkshire United Independent College in Bradford, England, to be a bit off the beaten track.
Yet Cadoux exhibits an extraordinary capacity for original research. He combed the resources in Greek, Latin, French, and German which dealt with the New Testament period and the early Church.
Cadoux stated the purpose of his book to "…describe and briefly to discuss the attitude of Jesus and his followers-in the period preceding the Constantinian settlement-towards the non-Christian society around them, more particularly in its political aspect" (p. ix). This purpose is carried out by using what is called the topical chronological method and examining the literary documents which remain from this period.
This method can be explained best possibly by showing first the six periods which Cadoux explored: Part I.-Jesus; Part II.-The Earlier Apostolic Age, 30-70 A.D.; Part III.-The Later Apostolic Age, 70-110 A.D.; Part IV.-The Period of the Earlier Apologists, 110-180 A.D.; Part V.-The Period of the Great Thinkers, 180-250 A.D.; and Part VI.-The Period of Final Struggle and Settlement, 250-313 A.D.
Within these time frames Cadoux developed the following topics: Literary Introduction; The World and the Church; Eschatology; Ethical Principles; Attitude to the State; War; The Institutions of Family Life, Property, and Slavery.
Traces of this methodology can be found in Cadoux`s earlier book, The Early Christian Attitude to War published in 1919. No doubt some of the prowess for the methodology began for Cadoux in his academic preparation at Oxford University; for, in his Preface he gives special words of appreciation to two of his professors, Vernon Bartlet in Church History and A.J. Carlyle in Church and State. Though the method is relatively simple to outline, it can still be quite cumbersome to employ. Abundant possibilities loom for contemporary researchers-writers to employ this methodology, however.
Exemplary research and writing, careful indexing of the material (over fifty pages of index), and a survey of issues of perennial importance-these are some of the reasons for the book`s importance for latter twentieth century readers. Some of the importance can best be understood in Cadoux`s own words in his epilogue: "…it must be clear even to the most casual observer that, in the work of the pre-Constantinian Church, whatever else we may or may not have, we certainly have a moral reformative movement on a scale and with a potency unparalleled at any other epoch before or since" (p. 611). Alongside this comment must be laid: "…the same historical evidence…also proves that during the pre-Constantianian period there was a steady and serious falling-off from the high ideals of primitive times" (p. 613).
The reader can clearly draw these implications from Cadoux: issues of the early church are ever with us; the Church has always had a mixed approach about these issues; the Church is to be about addressing larger issues of society; some models of address are available; some difference can be made by people like us on behalf of the Kingdom of God.
Ernst Troeltsch, like Cadoux, was fascinated by the social impact of the Christian movement. Also like Cadoux, Troeltsch began his study with the foundational statements of the Gospel but moved beyond the Constantine reformulation to the Protestant Reformation and into the Eighteenth Century.
The two-volume The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches was published in English in 1932. The original German version, Die Soziallehren der Christlichen Kirchen und Gruppen, was published in 1911. Troeltsch`s intent was to help his readers understand the social doctrines of the Gospel, of the Early Church, of the Middle Ages, and of the Reformation era. His is an attempt to set forth the bases of the social teaching behind the social action of the Church.
A theologian and historian who taught from 1910-1914 at Heidelberg and from 1915-1923 at Berlin, Troeltsch employed essentially a sociological method in Social Teaching. One critique of his work is that his attempt at objectivity with his method resulted in a rather relativistic work which neither condemned nor defended any particular system that emerged from his research.
Still his expertise at dealing with philosophy of religion, philosophy of history, Christian theology and ethics, and with the broad periods and movements of Western history provides an invaluable foundation for contemporary readers. Troeltsch essentially discussed the theological and philosophical bases held by the Church in each period of study. As well the sociological context of the Church is related.
According to H. Richard Neibuhr who wrote the "Introduction to the Torchbook Edition," the idea for Social Teachings began with a book review. A book review here and a pamphlet there and before one knows one can have a two-volume, 1,000 plus pages treatment. Yet, the two volumes are divided into only three chapters.
The first volume presents an "Introduction and Preliminary Questions of Method," Chapter I: "The Foundations in the Early Church," and Chapter II: "Mediaeval Catholicism." Troeltsch`s basic thesis begins to show early on, however.
This thesis is that a kind of dualism characterizes the Church through these eras. In Chapter I this dualism can be marked out with certain tendencies Troeltsch related in his chapter`s divisions: The Gospel-other worldly/this worldly; Paul-conservatism/radicalism; Early Catholic Church-hostility/indifferent acceptance. Chapter II demonstrates the movement toward ecclesiastical and cultural unity most vividly viewed in Thomist ethics. A dualistic bent resided yet in the Church with the early Middle Ages showing a tension between natural and supernatural morality and the later Middle Ages marked by what Troeltsch termed the church/sect tension.
Volume Two, Chapter III, surveys the rise of Protestantism. This extensive treatment should not surprise the reader, however. In his Foreword Troeltsch delineates a major purpose underlying Social Teachings: "to make clear to myself both the ecclesiastical dogmatic tradition of Protestantism in its own historical sense, and the intellectual and practical situation of the present day in its true fundamental tendencies."
Building from foundations in Volume 1 and borrowing from Max Weber, Troeltsch develops what has become a classic expression of modalities of the Church. Troeltsch considered the Church-type and the Sect-type to be two major dimensions of the Gospel movement in history. Added to these were mysticism.
Roughly the Church-type was/is marked by an objective institutional character, dominates the masses, utilizes the State and ruling classes, possesses a special religious class, becomes an integral part of the social order, and upholds objective authority in religion. The sect-type has more the look of a voluntary community whose members join of their own free will, is connected with lower classes opposed to the State and to society, stresses religious equality, appeals to the New Testament and the early Church for authority, and upholds subjective holiness.
Mysticism, the third type, can be seen to co-mingle historically with the other two types. Its particular marks of individualism and direct spiritual experience caused Troeltsch to give significant attention to this element. Contemporary readers should look at this section; for, Troeltsch surveyed many of those we would recognize as names and movements of what could be called the modern church history era.
So, what does Troeltsch leave for us? As with Cadoux, he demonstrates a model of erudition which pales most contemporary academicians. With endnotes that approach short treatises we are reminded that sometimes a quick read is not enough.
Troeltsch provides one of the most thorough surveys of how the Christian movement has been affected by its social context. As well, as the Church has been informed and formed by its society, so has it done its own informing and forming.
With specific regard to Baptists, Troeltsch`s categories of types would indicate Baptists have historically been primarily in the sect-type. The last half century or more, however, would indicate a strong propensity on the part of many Baptists to feel more comfortable with the Church-type.
Reinhold Niebuhr`s Moral Man and Immoral Society was first published in 1932. In the 1960 edition`s Preface, Neibuhr expressed why he thought the book was still an important statement:
"The central thesis was, and is that the Liberal Movement both religious and secular seemed to be unconscious of the basic difference between the morality of individuals and the morality of collectives, whether races, classes or nations. This difference ought not to make for a moral cynicism, that is, the belief that the collective must simply follow its own interests. But if the difference is real, as I think it is, it refutes many still prevalent moralistic approaches to the political order."
Neibuhr`s purpose was to build a case that a sharp distinction between individual and social morality must be drawn. Furthermore, individualistic ethical approaches are not sufficient for change in a global arena. Rather the discussion and action must take place in the ethical categories of justice and power, macro-ethics in other words.
Though a shorter treatment than those of Cadoux and Troeltsch, Moral Man and Immoral Society reflects some of the same style. The first third of Niebuhr`s book is given to historic development of his themes. Chapter I. "Man and Society: The Art of Living Together;" Chapter II. "The Rational Resources of the Individual for Social Living;" and Chapter III. "The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social Living" trace the history of religious ethics in western culture.
Carrying forward the idea that "…group relations can never be as ethical as those which characterize individual relations…" Niebuhr`s next chapters consider corporate ethical expression. Chapter IV. "The Morality of Nations;" Chapter V. "The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes;" and Chapter VI. "The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletarian Class" provide a backdrop for understanding the difficulty and complexity of relating ethical ideals to intergroup problems.
Three of the latter chapters, Chapter VII. "Justice Through Revolution;" Chapter VIII. "Justice Through Political Force;" and Chapter IX. "The Preservation of Moral Values in Politics;" contend that no sharp delineation can be made between violent and non-violent coercion. In a world marked by atrocities initiated by collectives (wars, economic exploitation, racial and other kinds of discrimination) a degree of force is needed to blunt the tide of these abuses of power.
Like the reprise of a musical composition, Niebuhr`s last chapter "The Conflict Between Individual and Social Morality" says his thesis again. The individual`s struggle for unselfishness and society`s grappling with forces that can provide justice will inevitably come into conflict. One cannot consider only one`s way to heaven and leave the larger human enterprise unredeemed of its corruptions.
Throughout this tome one can sense the movement in Niebuhr`s own life as he dealt with major theological and political movements. His pacifism drawn from a Liberal tradition moved to more of a just war position. He found less solace in a Socialist governmental philosophy as he took up the standard for democratization. Though he did not draw heavily from the pietistic side of his Lutheran-Reformed background, one can see a wrestling with the biblical revelation on power and justice and their particular implementation in the world about him. Though Niebuhr is usually associated with his thirty-plus years teaching at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, he considered himself at heart to be a pastor.
Too many disregard Niebuhr these days. He is difficult reading. Was he theologian, philosopher, or political scientist? For those who want quick, packaged, categorical approaches to life, Reinhold Niebuhr will not satisfy. Still, he should be on everyone`s to-read list because of his address of the perennial ethical problems presented us by the institutional side of life. Baptists, for instance, have made extensive forays into the corporate dimensions of denominationalism. Yet, as a group we have dealt only superficially with the matters of justice and power which the stewardship of these institutional expressions calls from us.
Conclusion
Taking the long view can be unpopular these days. I am finding students not only unwilling but also unable to appreciate this necessary dynamic in becoming what we would call educated. These macro-ethicists as I have called Cadoux, Troeltsch, and Niebuhr do not address the latest ethical fad. Their purposes were not so much to build a stance on a single issue; rather, they have left for posterity methodologies of inquiry and questions of such dimension that we cannot ignore them. You may not agree with them; but, they have asked such questions that thoughtful people still must take them seriously
