The Black Hebrew Israelites, Identity Construction and the Jersey City Shooting

By Jimmy Butts

Introduction

Religious diversity and religious liberty are considered cultural values in the United States. However, the limitations of these values are tested when they intersect with public morality. Take for example a recent court case involving a baker who argued that his religious beliefs would not allow him to make a cake that he thought would express a message inconsistent with his religious beliefs. This case and ones similar to it suggest a development in the way some U.S. citizens imagine religion; namely that citizens should have the freedom to believe what they choose, but the acts within society that a religious person engages in should be regulated when such beliefs interfere with the lives of others. 

An additional layer is added when the person is an African-American. Developed in the midst of oppression, African-American religions often have a theology of action that seeks to inspire resistance to the evils of white supremacy. Reflecting on figures like Nat Turner, Elijah Muhammad, Muhammad Ali, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr, one should become aware of the way African-American religious thought has caused adherents to implement change in society. 

For some, their religious views encouraged the use of violence to obtain the freedom of Black people. Various religious groups developed identities in response to the violence directed toward their African identities through discursive arguments about inferiority. African-Americans have provided their own discourse about their identity and the identity of their oppressors. The fear of some whites about the identity construction these religious groups developed causes uneasiness among some whites as they consider the potential for violence being directed towards them. 

The question one may ask, however, is whether the call for violence in some African-American religious thinking arose from the constructed identities within their theology or from some other location? More specifically: Do certain religious views about others necessarily lead to violence? 

This is the question addressed in this essay, especially in light of a recent fatal shooting in Jersey City, New Jersey. At least one individual gunman is reported to have been an adherent to the Black Hebrew Israelites, an African-American religious tradition. 

David Anderson and Francine Graham began their acts of violence in a local cemetery where they killed Detective Joseph Seals. They then parked a U-Haul van across the street from a kosher supermarket. The suspects entered the store and opened fire. After a shootout with the police who eventually arrived on the scene, both Anderson and Graham were killed. The suspects, however, had already killed Mindel Ferencz, Moshe Deutsch and Miguel Douglass. When the police searched the vehicle used by the suspects, they found a pipe bomb and numerous firearms. Ultimately, four innocent persons were killed, including one officer and three bystanders; another three people were wounded, including two police officers; and the two killers who were themselves killed. 

This author argues that the Jersey City shooting is an aberration within the interplay between theologies of identity and the use of violence in the African-American religious tradition. Following a brief explication of the origin of the groups that fall under the broad category known as the Black Hebrew Israelites, I will attempt to address that issue, explaining the theological identity articulated about “White Jews” by some Black Hebrew Israelites, and describing how the theologies of other African-American religious traditions affected their treatment of others. This article will then conclude with some final observations about the subject. 

Origin of the Black Hebrew Israelites

The title “Black Hebrew Israelites” refers to diverse groups of adherents who typically affirm the notion that the descendants of enslaved Africans who came to the Americas are the progeny of the biblical Israelites. Wisely highlighting the nuance needed to discuss this very complex topic, Judith Weisenfield, professor of religion at Princeton University, argues that “there’s no such thing as ‘the’ Black Hebrew Israelites.” She continues, “There are lots of different theological and political orientations within that broader umbrella.” 

Scholars of these religious communities identify at least two strains of the Black Hebrew Israelite movement. Weisenfield and Jacob Dorman argue that the first period of Black Israelite religious formation occurred between the 1890s and the 1920s. In response to a vision he claims to have received from God about African-Americans being the true descendants of the biblical Hebrews, Frank Cherry established the oldest Black Jewish organization in the United States called “The Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations;” founded in Chattanooga, Tennessee, around 1886. 

Another early proponent of this movement was a man named William Sanders Crowdy, who also claimed to have received visions. He taught that Black people in America were the descendants of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Based on this central claim, Crowdy established “The Church of God and Saints of Christ” in 1896. It must be noted that these two men claimed to have received these revelations during the era of lynching and the rise of Jim Crow in the United States. One also should be aware of Rabbi Wentworth Arthur Matthews who similarly taught that black people descended from the ten lost tribes of Israel. He founded “The Commandment Keepers Church of the Living God the Pillar and Ground of the Truth and the Faith of Jesus Christ” in 1919. 

The emergence of militant black nationalism led to the second strain of Black Hebrew Israelites in the 1960s and 1970s. These modern expressions of Black Hebrew Israelism flow from groups that began in New York and Chicago. A multitude of diverse groups represent this movement, but the group that has the greatest relevance for our current discussion was developed in 1969 by Abba Bivens. He rejected Rabbi Matthews’ Old Testament-only teachings and founded a school called “The Israelite School of Torah.” The school was located at 1 West 125th Street in Harlem. Consequently, the Black Hebrew Israelite groups that descend from this school have been called “1 Westers.” 

From the early days of Jim Crow to the present, Black Hebrew Israelism has been a part of the African-American religious tradition. One must distinguish these groups from black people who converted to Judaism. While there may be some slight overlap in certain areas (acceptance of sacred scripture, participation in religious ceremonies), those who developed the Black Hebrew Israelite traditions were establishing a movement that was, in many ways, distinct from what some describe as orthodox Judaism. In fact, many of these groups developed an unflattering view of orthodox Jews.

The Imposters: 'White Jews'

While the Black Hebrew Israelites have declared that they are the true biblical Hebrews, many of them also argue that “White Jews” are not true descendants of Israel. Some of the Black Hebrews in the early 20th century argued that they were the only true Israelites and that European Jews were really descendants of the Edomites. Similarly, some of the modern strains of Hebrew Israelites emphasize the illegitimacy of White Jews. 

One example is a Hebrew Israelite who goes by the name Prophet Travis Refuge.  He contends that those professed Jews who are occupying the land of Israel today are imposters; they are fake Jews. He argues that any pure caucasian claiming to be a child of Israel is a lying counterfeit. Refuge cites Revelation 12:9 and argues that the deception of Satan refers to the identity of the Jews. He explains: 

“There are demons working behind the scenes to promote deception amongst God’s people and the world. It’s all to promote the furtherance of the kingdom of Satan through the use of the fake Jews bringing more souls to hell while establishing a world where Satan is worshipped as God.” 

Not only are the “fake Jews” allied with Satan, according to Refuge, they are the children of Satan. Repeating some of the traditional stereotypes about Jews, Refuge argues that they own the major corporations of the world banks, they have large amounts of financial wealth, and they lied about the holocaust in order to gain money. Moreover, they are taking control of the highest political offices and key legislative positions in the United States, according to Refuge. 

Refuge also maintains that when the true Israelites resettle in Israel, they will be involved in military campaigns of revenge toward the nations that mistreated them. Refuge is apparently pointing to an eschatological event that will happen through divine intervention.

One may wonder how theological constructs like the one above may affect the way its adherents treat others. Can a theology that identifies a people as an evil race trigger acts of violence toward that people? Furthermore, can the promise of eschatological vengeance encourage attacks on people today by believers? To these issues we now turn. 

Theological Anthropology and Violence

While diverse African-American religious groups have held unique, unflattering views of white people, they have usually allowed violence only in self-defense. For example, Elijah Muhammad taught members of the Nation of Islam that white people were grafted devils and inherently evil. Furthermore, he argued that whites would be destroyed in the last days. However, Muhammad did not permit his followers to attack whites unless they were first attacked by them.    

Similarly, James Cone, founder of Black Liberation Theology, argued that the White Church is unchristian and the contemporary manifestation of the antichrist. He also maintains that God will fully liberate his people in the end of the world. However, Cone suggests that oppressed black people should only use violence against whites when they feel that the violence of their condition is more deplorable than revolutionary violence would be. He goes further and argues black people and white people should attempt to reconcile with one another. 

Both Muhammad and Cone espouse a theology that is critical of white identity. However, neither theological tradition advocates for violence against white people. In fact, when asked about the Jersey City tragedy, one of the Black Israelite leaders named General Yahanna of “The Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge,” said that the actions of the shooters did not represent the views of the Black Hebrew Israelites. The actions of these two individual shooters in Jersey City, therefore, seem to diverge from the African-American religious tradition. 

Conclusion

While the theology of the Black Hebrew Israelites seems to have played a role in the Jersey City tragedy, it is not clear that these actions are a necessary consequence of Black Hebrew “orthodoxy.” It is true that “White Jews” are viewed by some Black Hebrew Israelites as imposters, evil and children of the devil. However, other religious traditions exist within the African-American community with similar views about white people. Those traditions and theologies notwithstanding, these groups do not support violence toward white people outside of self-defense. 

While history demonstrates a link between unfavorable image projection and violence, the history of the Black Hebrew Israelites does not suggest the same for them. Unlike groups who have a long history of violence accompanying their rhetoric, African-American religious traditions seem to create identities for themselves and their oppressors for reasons outside of promoting violence, one being psychological. This does not mean that one should wait for a certain number of attacks to begin challenging certain ideologies. Anti-semitic rhetoric throughout Jewish history is a sad and deplorable reality. It is also apparent that terrorist attacks like the one in Jersey City are often rooted in ideologies that negatively project certain identities on groups of people. This situation opens the door for numerous ethical queries. 

Christians are called to engage in discussions about religious freedom and the morality of identity construction as implemented against groups that are spurned and considered objectionable. Negative identity assigned to others, in some cases, appears to influence acts of terrorism against that same group. 

When religious freedom is defined in ways that allows for the demonization of others, even to the point of eager anticipation for apocalyptic violence, where is the line drawn between religious liberty and irreligious bigotry? What then is true religious freedom? 

The answers are nuanced. Legislation and court decisions are not satisfactory avenues to address such nuance. Fervent believers, however misguided, sometimes commit horrible crimes of violence. Those acts can lead us to easily paint with a broad brush legitimate religious beliefs negatively, contributing to the “tribalism” which so infects our political-theological discourse nowadays. While these questions are vitally important, one must also ensure a carefully nuanced understanding of incidents such as the Jersey City shooting. 

For example, Dorman argues that the Southern Poverty Law Center’s labelling of some Black Hebrew Israelite organizations as hate groups is highly problematic from the perspective of a scholar. While trying not to take away from the horror of the Jersey City shooting, we must recognize the way these two terrorists are anomalies within the African-American religious tradition.    

— Jimmy Butts is currently a student at the University of Louisville working on his PhD in Pan-African Studies. His particular research focus is on Malcolm X and Africana religions. He holds a A.B. in Bible, a B.A. in Christian Ministry, and a MDiv. in Islamic Studies. He has written broadly on subjects like Islam, the Black Hebrew Israelites, the Black Church, and other issues. He is married to his beautiful wife, Brittany, and is the father of Selah Adam Edelman,

“Baker Who Refused to Make Cake for Gay Wedding: ‘I don’t discriminate,’” in NBC News (June 5, 2018) Retrieved Dec. 23, 2019 from: https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/baker-who-refused-make-cake-gay-wedding-i-don-t-n880061. 

For more on the discourse on the inferiority of African Americans see Ibram X. Kendi, Stamped From the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America, New York: Nation Books, 2016.

Colin Dwyer, “Jersey City Shooting was ‘A Targeted Attack on the Jewish Kosher Deli” in NPR (Dec. 11, 2019) retrieved Dec. 16, 2019 from: https://www.npr.org/2019/12/11/787029133/jersey-city-shooting-was-a-targeted-attack-on-the-jewish-kosher-deli. See also Jack Jenkins, “Who are Black Hebrew Israelites?” in Religion News Service (Dec. 13, 2019) retrieved Dec. 16, 2019 from: https://religionnews.com/2019/12/13/who-are-black-hebrew-israelites/. 

Jenkins, Who are Black Hebrew Israelites.

Ibid. Also see Jacob Dorman. Chosen People: The Rise of American Black Israelite Religions (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). 

2Tudor Parfitt,Black Jews in Africa and the Americas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 88. See also Merrill Singer, “Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites” in Yvonne Chireau and Nathaniel Deutsch, Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 58.

Dorman, Chosen People, 7, 38; Parfitt, Black Jews, 82.

Ibid., 71-72; Dorman, Chosen People, 153, 175.

Jack Jenkins, Who are Black Hebrew Israelites. See also Dorman, Chosen People, 5.

Vocab Malone, Barack Obama Versus The Black Hebrew Israelites: Introduction to the History and Beliefs of 1 West Hebrew Israelism (Phoenix: Thureos Publishing, 2017), 16, 23. 

8James E. Landing, Black Judaism: Story of An American Movement (North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 2002), 39.

Dorman, Chosen People, 175.

Jack Jenkins, Who are Black Hebrew Israelites. 

Prophet Travis Refuge, The Hebrew Israelite Manifesto: Operation, Let My People Go! (n.d.: Xulon Press, 2015), 75-76.

Ibid., 88.

Ibid., 71.

Ibid.

Ibid., 71, 77, 88.

Ibid., 100.

Ibid., 203. 

For more on the doctrine of the Nation of Islam see Elijah Muhammad, Message to the Blackman in America (Chicago: Muhammad’s Temple Number 2, 1965). 

James H. Cone, Black Theology and Black Power (New York: Orbis Books, 1997), 73.

James Cone, God of the Oppressed (NY: Orbis Books, 1975), 146.

Cone, Black Theology and Black Power, 143-152.

Grace Hauck, “Jersey City Shooting: Who are the Black Hebrew Israelites?” in USA Today (December 12, 2019) retrieved December 16, 2019 from: www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/12/12/jersey-city-shooting-who-black-hebrew-israelites/4408073002/. 

Jenkins, Who Are Black Hebrew Israelites.

Share on Facebook

Tweet

Follow us